--- description: Empower your tech skills with a solid grasp of Basics Linux/Unix Commands essential for navigating and controlling your open-source OS efficiently. title: Linux Commands with Examples & Syntax image: https://www.guru99.com/images/must-know-linux-commands.png --- [Skip to content](#main) **⚡ Smart Summary** Basics Linux/Unix Commands enable confident navigation, file management, software installation, and system administration through the terminal. This walkthrough explains essential commands, their syntax, real examples, and practical formatting tips that beginners and intermediate users can immediately apply. * 📁 **Foundational Skill:** Use ls, cat, mv, rm, and mkdir to perform daily file and directory operations. * 🔐 **Privilege Awareness:** Use sudo only when a command needs root rights to modify protected paths. * 📚 **Self-Help Pattern:** Rely on man, history, and clear to learn, recall, and reset the terminal effectively. * 🖨️ **Output Control:** Format text files for printing with pr options such as columns, headers, and line numbering. * 📦 **Package Workflow:** Install or upgrade software with apt-get, keeping dependencies updated through sudo apt-get update. * ✉️ **Communication Utility:** Send terminal-based emails using the mail command after installing the mailutils package. [ Read More ](javascript:void%280%29;) ![Basics Linux/Unix Commands](https://www.guru99.com/images/must-know-linux-commands.png) File management becomes easy once you know the right basic Linux commands. Commands are often called “programs” because each one runs the corresponding program code written for that command. This tutorial walks you through the must-know Linux basic commands with examples and clear syntax. ## Listing files (ls) To see the list of files on your UNIX or Linux system, use the **ls** command. It displays the files and directories in your current working directory. [![ls command listing files in current directory](https://www.guru99.com/images/ls(1).png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/ls%281%29.png) **Note:** * Directories are displayed in blue. * Files are displayed in white. * Similar color schemes appear across most Linux distributions. Suppose your “Music” folder contains the following subdirectories and files: [![Sample subdirectory structure](https://www.guru99.com/images/sub-directory(1).png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/sub-directory%281%29.png) You can use **‘ls -R’** to show all files in directories as well as subdirectories. [![ls -R recursive listing output](https://www.guru99.com/images/ls-R(1).png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/ls-R%281%29.png) **NOTE:** Linux basic commands are case-sensitive. If you type **ls – r** instead of **ls -R**, you will get an error. The command **‘ls -al’** gives detailed information about files in a columnar format. The columns contain the following information: | **1st Column** | File type and access permissions | | -------------- | ---------------------------------- | | **2nd Column** | Number of hard links to the file | | **3rd Column** | Owner and creator of the file | | **4th Column** | Group of the owner | | **5th Column** | File size in bytes | | **6th Column** | Date and time of last modification | | **7th Column** | Directory or file name | Here is an example output of **ls -al**: [![ls -al detailed file listing example](https://www.guru99.com/images/ls-al(2).png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/ls-al%282%29.png) ## Listing Hidden Files Hidden items in UNIX/Linux begin with a period (.) at the start of the file or directory name. [![Period symbol prefix for hidden files](https://www.guru99.com/images/period_symbol(2).png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/period%5Fsymbol%282%29.png) Any directory or file beginning with a “.” is hidden by default. To view hidden files, use the command: ``` ls -a ``` [![ls -a listing hidden files](https://www.guru99.com/images/ls-a(2).png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/ls-a%282%29.png) ## Creating & Viewing Files The **cat** command is used to display text files. It can also be used for copying, combining, and creating new text files. Let’s see how it works. To create a new file, use the following steps: 1. Type **cat > filename** 2. Add content 3. Press **Ctrl + D** to return to the command prompt. [![Creating a file with the cat command](https://www.guru99.com/images/cat_filename(1).png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/cat%5Ffilename%281%29.png) To view a file, use the command: ``` cat filename ``` Let us view the file we just created: [![Viewing a file using cat](https://www.guru99.com/images/cat_view_a_file(1).png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/cat%5Fview%5Fa%5Ffile%281%29.png) Here is another file named sample2: [![Sample2 file contents](https://www.guru99.com/images/cat_sample2.png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/cat%5Fsample2.png) The syntax to combine two files is: ``` cat file1 file2 > newfilename ``` Let us combine sample1 and sample2: [![Combining two files with cat](https://www.guru99.com/images/cat_combine.png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/cat%5Fcombine.png) Once you press Enter, the files are concatenated but no result is displayed. This is because **the Bash shell (terminal) is silent by design**. Shell commands do not return confirmation messages such as “OK” or “Command Successfully Executed”. The shell only prints a message when something goes wrong or an error occurs. To view the new combined file “sample”, use the command: ``` cat sample ``` [![Combined file output via cat](https://www.guru99.com/images/cat_combo.png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/cat%5Fcombo.png) **Note:** Only text files can be displayed and combined using this command. ## Deleting Files The **rm** command removes files from the system without asking for confirmation, so use it carefully. To remove a file, use the syntax: ``` rm filename ``` [![Deleting files with the rm command](https://www.guru99.com/images/linux_rm_command.jpg)](https://www.guru99.com/images/linux%5Frm%5Fcommand.jpg) ## Moving and Re-naming files To move a file, use the command: ``` mv filename new_file_location ``` Suppose we want to move the file “sample2” to the location /home/guru99/Documents. Executing the command: **mv sample2 /home/guru99/Documents** [![mv command permission error](https://www.guru99.com/images/mv_error.png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/mv%5Ferror.png) The **mv** command needs superuser permission for protected directories. Since we are executing it as a standard user, we get the error above. To overcome this, prefix the command with **sudo**: ``` sudo command_you_want_to_execute ``` The **sudo** program allows regular users to run programs with the security privileges of the superuser or root. It asks for password authentication; however, you do not need to know the root password — you can supply your own. After authentication, the system invokes the requested command. **sudo** also maintains a log of every command run. System administrators can trace back the person responsible for any undesirable changes to the system. ``` guru99@VirtualBox:~$ sudo mv sample2 /home/guru99/Documents [sudo] password for guru99: **** guru99@VirtualBox:~$ ``` For renaming a file: ``` mv filename newfilename ``` [![Renaming a file with mv](https://www.guru99.com/images/mv(1).png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/mv%281%29.png) **NOTE:** By default, the password entered for sudo is retained for 15 minutes per terminal session, so you do not have to re-enter it for every command. You only need root/sudo privileges when the command involves files or directories not owned by the user or group running the command. ## Directory Manipulations [![Directory Manipulation in Linux/Unix](https://www.guru99.com/images/Direct.png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/Direct.png) Enough with file manipulations. Let us learn some directory manipulation commands with examples and syntax. ### RELATED ARTICLES * [Linux Regular Expression Tutorial: Grep Regex Example ](https://www.guru99.com/linux-regular-expressions.html "Linux Regular Expression Tutorial: Grep Regex Example") * [List of Environment Variables in Linux/Unix ](https://www.guru99.com/linux-environment-variables.html "List of Environment Variables in Linux/Unix") * [50 Unix Interview Questions and Answers (2026) ](https://www.guru99.com/unix-interview-questions.html "50 Unix Interview Questions and Answers (2026)") * [Best Linux Certifications for Beginners (2026 Update) ](https://www.guru99.com/best-linux-certifications.html "Best Linux Certifications for Beginners (2026 Update)") ### Creating Directories Directories can be created on a Linux operating system using the following command: ``` mkdir directoryname ``` This command will create a subdirectory inside your present working directory, which is usually your “Home Directory”. For example: ``` mkdir mydirectory ``` [![Creating a directory with mkdir](https://www.guru99.com/images/MKdir-1.png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/MKdir-1.png) If you want to create a directory in a different location, you can use: ``` mkdir /tmp/MUSIC ``` This will create a directory “MUSIC” under “/tmp”. [![Creating a directory in a custom path](https://www.guru99.com/images/8-2016/linux-5-1.png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/8-2016/linux-5-1.png) You can also create more than one directory at a time: [![Creating multiple directories with mkdir](https://www.guru99.com/images/8-2016/linux-5-2.png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/8-2016/linux-5-2.png) ## Removing Directories To remove a directory, use the command: ``` rmdir directoryname ``` Example: ``` rmdir mydirectory ``` This will delete the directory “mydirectory”. [![Removing a directory with rmdir](https://www.guru99.com/images/rmdir.png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/rmdir.png) **Tip:** Ensure no files or sub-directories exist under the directory you want to delete. Delete the inner items first, and then remove the parent directory. [![rmdir failure when directory is not empty](https://www.guru99.com/images/rmdir1.png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/rmdir1.png) ## Renaming Directory The **mv** (move) command, covered earlier, can also be used to rename directories. Use the format below: ``` mv directoryname newdirectoryname ``` Let us try it: [![Renaming a directory using mv](https://www.guru99.com/images/8-2016/linux-5-3.png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/8-2016/linux-5-3.png) ## The ‘Man’ Command “Man” stands for manual — the reference book of a [Linux operating system](https://www.guru99.com/introduction-linux.html). It is similar to the HELP files found in popular software. To get help on any command, type: ``` man commandname ``` The terminal will open the manual page for that command. For example, typing **man man** and pressing Enter shows information about the **man** command itself: [![man man command input](https://www.guru99.com/images/man_man.png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/man%5Fman.png) [![Manual page for the man command](https://www.guru99.com/images/man_man_1.png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/man%5Fman%5F1.png) ## The History Command The **history** command shows all the basic commands you have used in the current terminal session. This helps you refer to old commands and reuse them quickly in your operations. [![history command output](https://www.guru99.com/images/history.png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/history.png) ## The Clear Command This command clears all clutter on the terminal and gives you a clean window to work on, just like when you launch the terminal. [![clear command output](https://www.guru99.com/images/clear.png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/clear.png) ## Pasting Commands into the Terminal Many times you will need to type long commands in the terminal. This can be annoying, so copy-pasting comes to the rescue. For copying text from a source, you use **Ctrl + C**, but for pasting it into the terminal, you need to use **Ctrl + Shift + V**. You can also try **Shift + Insert** or select **Edit > Paste** from the menu. **NOTE:** With Linux upgrades, these shortcuts change occasionally. You can set your preferred shortcuts via **Terminal > Edit > Keyboard Shortcuts**. ## Printing in Unix/Linux [![Printing a file using Linux commands](https://www.guru99.com/images/print.png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/print.png) Now let us look at Linux basic commands that **can print files** in a format you want. Even better, your original file is not affected by the formatting you apply for printing. ## ‘pr’ Command The **pr** command helps format a file for printing on the terminal. Several options are available that allow you to make formatting changes. The most commonly used **pr** options are listed below. | Option | Function | | --------------- | --------------------------------------------------- | | \-x | Divides the data into “x” columns | | \-h “header” | Assigns the “header” value as the report header | | \-t | Does not print the header and top/bottom margins | | \-d | Double-spaces the output file | | \-n | Numbers all lines | | \-l page length | Defines the number of lines per page. Default is 56 | | \-o margin | Formats the page by the margin number | Let us try some of these options and study their effects. ### Dividing data into columns “Tools” is a sample file (shown below): [![Sample Tools file used with pr command](https://www.guru99.com/images/Tools.png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/Tools.png) We want its content arranged in three columns. The syntax is: ``` pr -x Filename ``` The **\-x** option with the **pr** command divides the data into x columns. [![pr -x dividing file into columns](https://www.guru99.com/images/pr_-x.png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/pr%5F-x.png) ### Assigning a header The syntax is: ``` pr -h "Header" Filename ``` The **\-h** option assigns the “header” value as the report header. [![pr -h assigning a header](https://www.guru99.com/images/pr_-header.png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/pr%5F-header.png) As shown above, the file is arranged in three columns and a header has been assigned. ### Denoting all lines with numbers The syntax is: ``` pr -n Filename ``` This command numbers all lines in the file. [![pr -n adding line numbers](https://www.guru99.com/images/pr_-n.png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/pr%5F-n.png) These are some of the **pr** command options you can use to modify file formatting. ### Printing a file Once formatting is complete and it is time to get a **hard copy** of the file, use: ``` lp Filename ``` or ``` lpr Filename ``` To print multiple copies of the file, use the number modifier: [![Printing multiple copies using lp](https://www.guru99.com/images/multiple_prints.png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/multiple%5Fprints.png) If you have multiple printers configured, you can specify a particular printer using the printer modifier: [![Selecting a specific printer using lp](https://www.guru99.com/images/multiple_printers.png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/multiple%5Fprinters.png) ## Installing Software On Windows, installing a program is done by running a setup.exe file. The installation bundle contains the program along with various dependent components required to run it correctly. [![VLC Player installer example](https://www.guru99.com/images/VLCPlayer.png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/VLCPlayer.png) On Linux, installation files are distributed as packages. A package generally contains only the program itself. Any dependent components must be installed separately and are usually available as packages themselves. [![Banshee package example](https://www.guru99.com/images/Banshee.png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/Banshee.png) You can use the **apt** commands to install or remove a package. Let us update all the installed packages on the system using: ``` sudo apt-get update ``` [![apt-get update output](https://www.guru99.com/images/apt.png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/apt.png) The easiest and most popular way to install programs on Ubuntu is through the Software Center, since most software packages are available there and it is safer than downloading from random sources on the internet. [![Ubuntu Software Center](https://www.guru99.com/images/SoftwareCenter.png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/SoftwareCenter.png) **Also Check:** [Linux Command Cheat Sheet](https://www.guru99.com/linux-commands-cheat-sheet.html) ## Linux Mail Command To send mails through a terminal, you need to install the **mailutils** package. The command syntax is: ``` sudo apt-get install packagename ``` Once installed, use the following syntax to send an email: ``` mail -s 'subject' -c 'cc-address' -b 'bcc-address' 'to-address' ``` It will look like this: [![Linux mail command syntax example](https://www.guru99.com/images/mail.png)](https://www.guru99.com/images/mail.png) Press **Ctrl + D** when you are finished writing the mail. The mail will be sent to the specified address. ## Tips for Beginners Learning Linux Commands Mastering Linux commands becomes much easier when you approach them in the right order and apply consistent practice habits. The terminal can feel intimidating at first, but a few simple workflows make a huge difference for new learners. Use the tips below to accelerate your learning curve: 1. **Start with navigation commands:** Learn **pwd**, **ls**, and **cd** first. They form the backbone of every other operation you will perform in the terminal. 2. **Always read the man page:** Whenever you encounter a new command, run **man command** to understand its options before testing them. 3. **Use Tab completion:** Press **Tab** while typing a filename or command. Bash auto-completes the name, reducing typing errors. 4. **Experiment in a sandbox folder:** Create a dedicated practice directory so destructive commands such as **rm** never touch important data. 5. **Keep a personal cheat sheet:** Maintain a notebook or text file of useful commands you learn. Revisit it daily during the first month. 6. **Combine commands with pipes:** The pipe operator **|** chains commands together — for example, **ls -al | grep “.txt”** filters only text files. 7. **Use history shortcuts:** Press the **Up arrow** to reuse recent commands or run **!n** to repeat the n-th command from your history list. 8. **Backup before bulk operations:** Always copy important data before running batch **rm**, **mv**, or **chmod** operations on multiple files. These habits build muscle memory and prevent the most common beginner mistakes that lead to lost files or broken permissions. ## Common Mistakes to Avoid When Using Linux Commands New Linux users often run into small mistakes that cause big consequences. The terminal does not undo, so a careless command can permanently delete data or corrupt configurations. * **Ignoring case sensitivity:** “File.txt” and “file.txt” are two different items in Linux. * **Running rm -rf without verifying the path:** A wrong path can wipe out critical system files. * **Overusing sudo:** Granting root privileges to every command increases security risk. * **Editing system files without backups:** Always copy the original before changing configuration files in /etc. * **Forgetting Tab completion:** Manually typing paths increases the chance of typos and accidental data loss. Avoiding these pitfalls keeps your system safe and your learning experience frustration-free. ## Linux Command List Below is a quick reference cheat sheet of the Linux/Unix basic commands covered in this tutorial: | Command | Description | | --------------------------------------- | ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | ls | Lists all files and directories in the current working directory | | ls -R | Lists files in subdirectories as well | | ls -a | Lists hidden files as well | | ls -al | Lists files and directories with details such as permissions, size, and owner | | cat > filename | Creates a new file | | cat filename | Displays the file content | | cat file1 file2 > file3 | Joins two files (file1, file2) and stores the result in file3 | | mv file “new file path” | Moves the file to the new location | | mv filename new\_file\_name | Renames the file to a new filename | | sudo | Allows regular users to run programs with superuser privileges | | rm filename | Deletes a file | | man | Provides help information about a command | | history | Lists all past commands used in the current terminal session | | clear | Clears the terminal screen | | mkdir directoryname | Creates a new directory | | rmdir | Deletes a directory | | mv | Renames a directory | | pr -x | Divides the file into x columns | | pr -h | Assigns a header to the file | | pr -n | Numbers each line in the file | | lp -nc | Prints “c” copies of the file | | lp -d / lpr -P | Specifies the printer name | | apt-get | Installs and updates packages | | mail -s ‘subject’ -c ‘cc’ -b ‘bcc’ ‘to’ | Sends an email | | mail -s “Subject” to-address < Filename | Sends an email with an attachment | ## FAQs ⚖️ What is the difference between Linux and Unix commands? Linux and Unix share most basic commands such as ls, cat, mv, and rm. The syntax is largely identical, but Linux distributions add GNU-specific options, whereas Unix systems may use older or proprietary command variants with limited flags. 🛤️ How do I find the exact path of a command in Linux? Use the **which** command, for example, **which ls**, to display the absolute path of the command being executed. The **type** and **command -v** options also help confirm whether a command is an alias, built-in, or executable. 🤖 How can AI help me learn Linux commands faster? AI assistants explain unfamiliar commands, generate sample syntax, debug terminal errors, and suggest safer alternatives. They convert plain-English questions into commands, helping beginners practice faster without memorizing every flag in the man pages. 🧠 Are there AI-powered terminal assistants for Linux beginners? Yes. Tools such as Warp, Fig, ShellGPT, and GitHub Copilot CLI integrate directly with the terminal and provide AI-driven command suggestions, autocomplete, and natural-language to shell command translation, making them very useful for new Linux users. 🐧 Which Linux distributions are best for beginners? Ubuntu, Linux Mint, Zorin OS, and Pop!\_OS are widely recommended for beginners. They offer user-friendly interfaces, large support communities, automatic updates, and broad hardware compatibility, making the transition from Windows or macOS smooth and intuitive. #### Summarize this post with: ChatGPT Perplexity Grok Google AI **Stay Updated on AI** **Get Weekly AI Skills, Trends, Actionable Advice.** ##### Sign up for the newsletter Subscribe for Free You have successfully subscribed. 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